The State
Madjid Vahid; Sousan Nourbakhsh
Abstract
Introduction
Over the past half century, governance has become a central yet highly contested concept in the study of political, economic, and social orders (Levi-Faur, 2012). The increasing complexity of public problems, the proliferation of actors involved in decision-making, and the limitations of ...
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Introduction
Over the past half century, governance has become a central yet highly contested concept in the study of political, economic, and social orders (Levi-Faur, 2012). The increasing complexity of public problems, the proliferation of actors involved in decision-making, and the limitations of state-centered models have generated a growing demand for analytical frameworks capable of capturing the dynamic nature of governance processes (Jessop, 1997).
Building on the Food and Agriculture Organization’s (FAO) distinction between ‘normative approaches’— most notably the good governance theory— and ‘political-economy approaches’ that emphasize power relations and non-state actors, this paper argues that these approaches remain insufficient to explain the historical dynamics, interpretive meanings, and evolving configurations of governance (Bojic et al., 2022).
The authors contend that the FAO’s categorization can be further enriched by incorporating a third approach, referred to as the ‘interpretive approaches’. Accordingly, the introduction and review of the theory of Evolutionary Governance— developed within the interpretive approaches — constitute the central focus of this paper.
Research Objective
The objective of this paper is to extend this analytical landscape by introducing an interpretive approach and examining the theory of Evolutionary Governance as a complementary framework for understanding governance change. Specifically, it aims to identify the main approaches within the governance literature, to articulate the theoretical and practical limitations of normative and political-economy approaches, and to demonstrate how alternative governance frameworks can offer a more comprehensive and context-sensitive understanding of governance trajectories.
Methods
Methodologically, this paper adopts a descriptive–analytical approach based on a critical review of the governance literature.
Results and Discussion
This review identifies and evaluates three principal strands in the governance literature: the normative (good-governance) approach, the political-economy approach, and the interpretive strand exemplified by Evolutionary Governance.
The normative approach emerged in the wake of structural-adjustment failures and persistent corruption in many developing countries, with the World Bank providing an early, influential definition of governance as the manner in which power is exercised to manage a country’s economic and social resources for development. The World Bank’s subsequent formulation specified three dimensions— political regime, the processes through which authority is exercised, and state capacity to design and implement policy— and translated these into a five-fold good-governance agenda (public sector management, accountability, rule of law, transparency, and access to information) (World Bank, 1994; 1992). Proponents argued that establishing these institutional arrangements would generate a self-reinforcing cycle of economic and political development.
The global diffusion of the agenda by multilateral organizations broadened its reach but also exposed blind spots: an overemphasis on state-centered reforms, inadequate attention to equity and inclusion, and unrealistic expectations regarding implementation in contexts characterized by poverty, weak legitimacy, and political instability. Empirically, the optimistic assumption that good governance reforms would automatically yield development outcomes proved problematic, as implementation gaps and contextual mismatches substantially limited their effectiveness.
In response, the political-economy perspective foregrounded power, interests, and the distributional mechanisms that shape governance outcomes. Scholars emphasized ‘good enough’ or contextually feasible reforms (Grindle, 2007; 2004), while the theorists of limited-access orders and political settlements demonstrated how elite bargains, rent distribution, and interactive orders condition institutional trajectories (Khan, 2018; 2013; North et al., 2007). Concepts such as political topographies and center–periphery bargaining have shown that understanding a country’s governance structures depends on grasping the bidirectional interactions between elites and society. Absent such alignment, reform prescriptions often remain rhetorical or counterproductive (Boone, 2003). The interpretive approach— particularly Evolutionary Governance Theory (EGT)— provides a complementary, context-sensitive analytical lens. EGT offers an interpretive and dynamic framework for addressing the complexity of governance by conceptualizing governance as a co-evolving system of actors, institutions, and discourses. Drawing on social systems theory, post-structuralism, and institutional and development economics, EGT emphasizes that governance trajectories are shaped through interactions among actors, formal and informal institutions, historical path dependencies, and discursive practices (Beunen et al., 2015; Van Assche et al., 2014).Key concepts within this framework include actor–institution configurations, power–knowledge configurations, and processes of dependency and path creation, all of which shape trajectories of governance transformation. Governance is thus understood as a discursive process involving subjects (actors) and objects (socially constructed concepts), in which narratives, metaphors, and open concepts continuously redefine the scope of action and influence policy outcomes (Van Assche et al., 2014; Van Assche et al., 2011a).
Conclusion
Over recent decades, governance has become a central concern in political science, prompting a plurality of theoretical responses. Normative approaches— most notably the good governance agenda—have promoted broad and often universal institutional prescriptions, whereas alternative perspectives emphasize that governance outcomes are contingent upon context-specific configurations of power, elite bargains, and differential access to resources. While political-economy approaches have advanced a more context-sensitive understanding of governance, the persistent inability of many governance reforms to address emergent and complex problems underscores the need for an interpretive turn.
EGT responds to this need by offering a holistic and dynamic perspective in which governance is conceptualized as a co-evolving system of actors, institutions, discourses, narratives, and power relations. EGT highlights the significance of historical pathways, non-linear change, and the mutual reconfiguration of material conditions and meaning-making processes. Accordingly, governance transformation cannot be reduced to isolated changes in actor strategies or institutional arrangements; rather, it requires the co-evolution of actors, institutions, discourses, and power configurations over time. By embedding discursive processes within institutional and historical contexts, EGT provides a more comprehensive analytical framework for understanding long-term and intertwined governance change and for informing more realistic, adaptive, and context-sensitive policy responses.
Political Sociology
Ali Nanvayi; Mohammad Bagher Khorramshad
Abstract
Background and Problem StatementThe relationship between institutions and cognitive rules is a central issue in contemporary political analysis. Institutional theories usually emphasize formal organizations and governance structures, whereas cognitive institutionalism highlights the role of shared beliefs, ...
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Background and Problem StatementThe relationship between institutions and cognitive rules is a central issue in contemporary political analysis. Institutional theories usually emphasize formal organizations and governance structures, whereas cognitive institutionalism highlights the role of shared beliefs, values, and mental frameworks in shaping political legitimacy. Political legitimacy depends not only on institutional performance but also on the compatibility between institutional arrangements and dominant societal beliefs. When this compatibility weakens, legitimacy declines and the possibility of institutional transformation increases. The Iranian Revolution of 1979 provides an important case for examining this interaction. During the Pahlavi regime, rapid modernization, political centralization, and state-led secularization transformed the institutional structure of Iran. However, these reforms increasingly conflicted with the prevailing cognitive rules of large segments of society, particularly religious values and traditional norms. As a result, the regime’s political legitimacy gradually eroded, while alternative cognitive frameworks based on Islamic governance, anti-Westernism, and social justice gained wider acceptance. Although many studies have analyzed the Iranian Revolution from economic, sociological, or historical perspectives, fewer have investigated the reciprocal relationship between institutions, cognitive rules, and political legitimacy within a single analytical framework. This study addresses that gap.Research ObjectiveThe study aims to explain how the interaction between institutions and cognitive rules affected political legitimacy and contributed to the occurrence of the Iranian Revolution. It seeks to identify the mechanisms through which institutional arrangements shape cognitive rules, how cognitive rules influence institutional change, and how the compatibility or incompatibility between them affects political legitimacy.MethodologyThis research employs a qualitative, interpretive, and analytical approach. Data were collected from historical documents, academic books, scholarly articles, constitutional texts, and political records. The analysis is informed by cognitive institutionalism and political legitimacy theory. The study examines four dimensions: the institutional structure of the Pahlavi regime; the cognitive rules promoted by the regime, including secularism, nationalism, and Western-oriented modernization; the emergence of alternative cognitive rules centered on Islamic political thought and revolutionary ideology; and the interaction between institutional transformation and cognitive change before and after the revolution. The qualitative approach allows a comprehensive examination of historical processes, ideological transformations, and institutional evolution.FindingsThe findings show that political legitimacy is strongly influenced by the degree of alignment between institutions and cognitive rules. The institutional structure of the Pahlavi regime was characterized by centralized authority, concentration of power in the monarchy, extensive security institutions, and limited political participation. While these institutions promoted economic modernization, they increasingly failed to accommodate religious values, cultural diversity, and social demands. At the same time, the regime promoted cognitive rules emphasizing secular nationalism, Westernization, and royal authority. These cognitive rules gradually lost social acceptance. Economic inequalities, political repression, perceived corruption, and cultural tensions widened the gap between institutional practices and dominant societal beliefs, leading to a crisis of political legitimacy. During the revolutionary period, new cognitive rules became increasingly influential. Islamic governance, the doctrine of Velayat-e Faqih, anti-Western discourse, revolutionary activism, and social justice formed an alternative cognitive framework that provided ideological coherence for revolutionary mobilization. Following the revolution, major institutional transformation accompanied cognitive change. The monarchy was abolished and replaced by the Islamic Republic, whose institutional structure integrated religious authority into formal political institutions. Organizations such as the Guardian Council and the Assembly of Experts institutionalized the dominant cognitive rules of the new political order. The study therefore demonstrates that the establishment of the Islamic Republic represented not only a change of regime but also a simultaneous transformation of both institutional structures and cognitive rules.ConclusionThis research concludes that the interaction between institutions, cognitive rules, and political legitimacy offers a comprehensive explanation for revolutionary political transformation. The collapse of the Pahlavi regime resulted from the growing divergence between its institutional arrangements and the dominant cognitive rules of Iranian society. Conversely, the initial legitimacy of the Islamic Republic was strengthened by the alignment between newly established institutions and widely accepted revolutionary beliefs. The study argues that neither institutions nor cognitive rules alone can fully explain major political transformations. Revolutionary change occurs when existing institutions lose cognitive support while competing cognitive rules become sufficiently institutionalized to provide an alternative basis for political legitimacy. This framework contributes to the broader literature on cognitive institutionalism by showing that political legitimacy is produced through the continuous interaction between institutional arrangements and cognitive rules, and it may be applied to the analysis of regime stability and institutional change in other political contexts.
Political Thought
Ebrahim Abbasi; َAdel Nemati
Abstract
Research ProblemThe Iranian agent, before encountering the civilizational order of Western modernity in their historical context, possessed this historical awareness that they had to shape their destiny on two levels: First: How to create a connector or intermediary among the diverse and various Iranian ...
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Research ProblemThe Iranian agent, before encountering the civilizational order of Western modernity in their historical context, possessed this historical awareness that they had to shape their destiny on two levels: First: How to create a connector or intermediary among the diverse and various Iranian ethnic groups and religions within the shared geographic bedrock of the Iranian plateau. This connector would serve as a foundation for achieving the technology of "Iranian Peace" within the geographic territory of the Iranian plateau. Second: How to create an intermediary and modality between rulers and the governed, through which they could access the technology of the "Iranian State" in their history. Accessing the technology of "Iranian Peace" and the technology of the "Iranian State" represents two formations of the Iranian governance order. This governance order and its technologies are referred to in this article using the theories of Hegel and some other contemporary theorists of "civilization."The fundamental question of this article is the conceptualization of governance and its nature in Iranian politics and its relation to the nature of governance in the West. The historical nature of governance in the foundational history of Iran, before encountering the civilizational order of Western modernity in the 16th century, cannot be articulated within the dual models of governance in the West, namely "empire" and "nation-state." Instead, this foundational history, based on the geographical and historical components of Iran, possesses a distinct historical structure from the dual Western models of governance. In this article, we have conceptualized this governance model as a "civilizational nation." The idea of a civilizational nation is conceptualized based on James Rosenau's concept of governance and the Hegelian concept of " Avfheben". Based on the concept of the "civilizational nation," the research findings show that the idea of Iran in its history has had the following three levels:"Iran": The object of Iran's geographical territory as an independent and non-constructed ontological object with an eternal and everlasting nature."Iranian": The pluralism of various and opposing ethnic groups and religions as social agents that have been constructed and are constantly undergoing historical transformation."Governance Technologies of the Iranian Civilizational Nation": Mechanisms of governance or ruling without the relationship of dominance and subjugation between rulers and the ruled, and between the various and diverse Iranian ethnic groups and religions with the shared geographical bedrock of the Iranian plateau, which mediate between the concept of "Iran" and the concept of "Iranian."Research ObjectiveNarrating the foundational history of pre-modern Iran based on the governance order of the "Iranian Civilizational Nation" and the governance technologies of "Iranian Peace" and the "Iranian State" that will be presented in this article, represents a reversal of the official and dominant interpretations in discourses on "underdevelopment," such as Mohammad Ali Homayoun Katouzian's reading of "Iranian Despotism," Aramesh Dustdar's "The Impossibility of Thinking in the Religious Culture," Mahmoud Sariolghalam's "Tribal Characteristics of Iranians," Ahmad Ashraf's "Patriarchal Tribal Despotism," and others, which conceptualize the pre-modern historical past of Iranians as the "cause of underdevelopment" in modern times. Contrary to the narratives of "underdevelopment," the concept of the "Iranian Civilizational Nation" conceptualizes the historical past of Iranians before their encounter with the civilizational order of Western modernity not as a "decadent past" but as a "developed past." In this view, the Iranian agent, considering their geographical and historical singularities, was able to articulate their unique governance order in their history. This order or governance technology allowed them to achieve "peace" within their territorial geography and access the "art of connecting" rulers and the ruled in their history.MethodologyIn this article, the idea of Iran as a civilizational nation is discussed by borrowing from James Rosenau's discussions on governance and Hegel's concept of the concrete universal, with modifications and adjustments made by the authors. The research method in this article is the "history of thought" or "history of ideas." The following foundational principles can be outlined for the conceptualization of this scientific method. The combination of the "descriptive-explanatory" method with the "prescriptive-normative" method is one of the features of the scientific method of the "history of ideas."Research Findings In narrating the history of the Iranian nation within the theoretical framework of the "civilizational nation," we observe a fundamental distinction between the concept of "Iran" as an ontological object, independent of the Iranian subject, eternal and everlasting within the natural boundaries of the geographical territory of the Iranian plateau, and the concept of "Iranian" as a constructed, historical, temporary, and variable subject in history, corresponding to the diverse and non-reducible ethnicities and religions. In the reading of the "Iranian Civilizational Nation," coordination and connection are established between the source of continuity and stability of the Iranian nation, which is the concept of "Iran," and the source of change and transformation in the Iranian nation, which is the concept of "Iranian," through a third level that acts as an intermediary and modality between the two levels of "Iran" and "Iranian." This third level in the "Iranian Civilizational Nation" is the Iranian governance order, which historically acted as an intermediary between the source of continuity and historical stability of "Iran" and the source of change and historical transformation of "Iranian" in the foundational history of Iran before the encounter with the civilizational order of Western modernity. This governance order, through its modality between the geographical territory of the Iranian plateau and the various and diverse Iranian ethnic groups and religions, formed the technology of "Iranian Peace," and through the intermediary between rulers and the ruled, created the technology of the "Iranian State."ConclusionBefore encountering the West, Iranians were able to develop governance technologies as intermediaries between points of unity and diversity in their foundational history. These technologies, independent of individuals and personal power, led to the formation of the "art of connecting," nation-building, integration, historical continuity, stability, and long-term historical perspective.In the governance order of Iranian peace, we observed the technology of unity in diversity through the triad (Nowruz / King of Kings / Royal Road), linking the geographic unity of the Iranian plateau with the diversity of various Iranian ethnic groups and religions in ancient Iran's foundational history. Similarly, in the governance order of the Iranian state, we saw the technology of governance through the triad (Iranian etiquette / Iranian ministry / Dehgân), uniting Arab, Turkmen, and Mongol rulers and conquerors with the diversity of Iranian City in foundational Iranian history.This process began to decline from the mid-reign of Shah Abbas of the Safavid dynasty with Iran's encounter with the West and its efforts to Europeanize, although it had continued well during ancient Iran, the Islamic period, and even the Mongol era. The attempt to Europeanize and eliminate these intermediaries has been the main obstacle to revisiting them and combining Iranian peace and the Iranian state over the past four centuries. The repetition of these orders depends on returning to them with an interpretation that aligns with contemporary needs.
The State
Habib Ebrahimpour; Zahra Pouramini
Abstract
Introduction
Governance has emerged as one of the most influential concepts in public administration and political science, providing the institutional framework through which societies are directed, resources are managed, and public interests are protected. Contemporary governance theories emphasize ...
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Introduction
Governance has emerged as one of the most influential concepts in public administration and political science, providing the institutional framework through which societies are directed, resources are managed, and public interests are protected. Contemporary governance theories emphasize principles such as accountability, transparency, participation, rule of law, equity, and strategic management. Although these principles have been extensively discussed in modern literature, most existing governance frameworks are derived from Western philosophical and administrative traditions. Consequently, there is an increasing need to develop indigenous governance models grounded in the cultural and intellectual heritage of non-Western civilizations.
Persian classical literature represents a rich source of ethical, social, and managerial thought. Among its most distinguished figures, Abu-Mohammad Muslih al-Din Saadi Shirazi (1210–1292) occupies a unique position because his masterpieces, Golestan and Bostan, transcend literary expression and offer profound insights into leadership, justice, administration, ethics, and social responsibility. Through stories, anecdotes, and moral reflections, Saadi presents practical guidance for rulers, administrators, and society, emphasizing the inseparable relationship between justice, morality, and effective governance.
Despite the significance of Saadi's intellectual contributions, previous studies have primarily examined his works from literary, linguistic, philosophical, or ethical perspectives. Few studies have systematically explored his ideas within the framework of governance theory or attempted to construct a comprehensive governance model based on his teachings. Addressing this research gap, the present study seeks to identify and conceptualize the essential governance principles embedded in Golestan and Bostan and to develop a coherent governance model that reflects indigenous values while remaining relevant to contemporary governance discourse.
Materials and Methods
This study adopts a qualitative exploratory-descriptive design within the interpretivist research paradigm. Documentary analysis was employed to collect data, while thematic analysis served as the primary analytical approach for identifying and organizing governance-related concepts.
The research population consisted of all narratives contained in the first chapter of Golestan ("On the Conduct of Kings"), comprising 41 anecdotes, and all sections of the first chapter of Bostan ("Justice, Prudence, and Governance"), comprising 24 sections. Since every relevant narrative was examined, census sampling was applied rather than selective sampling. The temporal scope of the study corresponds to the 2023 research period.
The analytical process followed the six-step thematic analysis procedure. Initially, the texts were read repeatedly to achieve conceptual familiarity. Meaningful statements associated with governance, leadership, ethics, justice, administration, and public responsibility were then extracted and assigned initial codes. Similar codes were subsequently grouped into basic themes, which were further integrated into organizing themes and finally synthesized into overarching governance components. To improve analytical rigor, coding consistency was continuously reviewed, conceptual overlaps were eliminated, and the resulting themes were refined until theoretical coherence was achieved.
Results and Discussion
The findings indicate that the governance model derived from Saadi's Golestan and Bostan consists of 11 major governance components supported by 30 basic themes. These components collectively represent a comprehensive framework integrating ethical, managerial, social, and strategic dimensions of governance.
Justice emerged as the central pillar of the proposed model. Rather than being interpreted merely as legal equality, justice encompasses opposition to oppression, fairness in interpersonal relations, protection of citizens' rights, and equitable treatment of society. Saadi consistently portrays justice as the foundation of governmental legitimacy and social stability, suggesting that sustainable governance cannot exist without moral justice.
The second component emphasizes rule of law, including citizenship rights, ethical conduct, and adherence to social values. Unlike purely legalistic interpretations, Saadi integrates legal authority with ethical responsibility, arguing that effective governance requires both institutional regulations and moral commitment.
Another important dimension concerns human resource management, which includes meritocracy, preservation of human dignity, and employee motivation. The findings demonstrate that competent leadership should rely on qualified individuals rather than personal relationships or political favoritism. Respect for human dignity is presented not only as an ethical obligation but also as a prerequisite for organizational effectiveness.
The model further highlights effective communication through dialogue, persuasion, trust-building, constructive social relationships, and freedom of expression. These findings indicate that governance is strengthened when communication flows openly between leaders and citizens, enabling mutual understanding and social cohesion.
The component of social welfare and poverty alleviation emphasizes benevolence, poverty reduction, and public welfare as essential governmental responsibilities. Saadi repeatedly associates political legitimacy with rulers' ability to improve the living conditions of society, suggesting that economic justice and social welfare are inseparable from good governance.
The findings also identify administrative management as another key component, including strategic planning, creativity, managerial competence, and effective leadership. In Saadi's perspective, successful governance depends upon wisdom, foresight, and the ability to allocate resources efficiently rather than relying solely on authority or power.
Furthermore, the governance model incorporates God-centeredness, reflecting the spiritual dimension of leadership. Dependence on divine guidance is viewed as reinforcing ethical responsibility, humility, and accountability rather than replacing rational decision-making.
Another significant component is self-management, encompassing self-improvement, integrity, anti-corruption, prudence, commitment, and responsibility. The findings suggest that personal moral development constitutes the foundation of effective public leadership, since ethical governance begins with ethical leaders.
The model also emphasizes participatory governance, including public service, attention to collective interests, teamwork, cooperation, and citizen participation. This perspective aligns with contemporary governance theories advocating collaborative decision-making while grounding participation within an ethical and community-oriented framework.
Finally, strategic vision emerged as an essential component characterized by foresight, anticipation of future challenges, and appropriate utilization of available resources. Saadi repeatedly stresses that wise governance requires long-term thinking rather than short-term reactions, highlighting strategic leadership as an indispensable characteristic of successful rulers.
Conclusion
This study demonstrates that Saadi Shirazi's intellectual legacy provides a comprehensive and coherent framework for governance extending far beyond literary or ethical instruction. The proposed governance model integrates justice, rule of law, meritocracy, ethical leadership, communication, public participation, social welfare, strategic management, and moral responsibility into a unified conceptual structure. Unlike many contemporary governance models that primarily emphasize institutional efficiency, Saadi's framework balances administrative effectiveness with ethical values and human dignity.
Theoretically, this research contributes to governance literature by introducing an indigenous governance model rooted in Persian-Islamic intellectual traditions, thereby enriching comparative governance studies and expanding the cultural foundations of governance theory. Practically, the model offers valuable implications for policymakers, public administrators, leadership development programs, and governance reforms seeking culturally grounded approaches to organizational and governmental management. Future studies may validate the proposed model quantitatively across different organizational and governmental contexts or compare Saadi's governance philosophy with contemporary governance frameworks such as good governance, public value governance, and collaborative governance. Such comparative investigations may further demonstrate the continuing relevance of classical Persian thought in addressing modern governance challenges.
Political Thought
Dariush Rahmati; Anahita Motazed Rad
Abstract
Introduction
The concept of the state is one of the most complex and multifaceted phenomena in human history, serving as the primary mechanism for legislation, social order, and communal administration. While Western political science often treats the state as a modern construct arising from social ...
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Introduction
The concept of the state is one of the most complex and multifaceted phenomena in human history, serving as the primary mechanism for legislation, social order, and communal administration. While Western political science often treats the state as a modern construct arising from social contracts and secular rationalism, the historical trajectory of ancient Iran presents a fundamentally different paradigm. In the Iranian civilization, particularly during the Sassanid era, the state was not a mere secular entity but was deeply intertwined with cosmic and religious orders.
The transition from the Parthian (Arsacid) Empire to the Sassanid Empire marked a pivotal shift in the nature of Iranian governance. While the Parthians maintained a more decentralized, Hellenistic-influenced model, the Sassanids sought to consolidate power through a centralized, ideological, and deeply religious framework. This research aims to investigate the mechanism through which the Sassanid government integrated religious logic into the administrative layers of the state, effectively transitioning from the relatively pluralistic Parthian model to a highly structured religious monarchy. The central inquiry focuses on how the concept of the “Ideal King” served as the cornerstone for this new political-religious identity.
Materials & Methods
This study employs a qualitative, analytical approach, utilizing a historical case study methodology centered on the Sassanid period. The research is grounded in the scrutiny of the relationship between political principles and theological interpretations within the framework of “Iranshahri” (Iranian-centric) political thought. To ensure academic rigor, the study analyzes a diverse array of historical and archeological evidence, including:
Numismatic Evidence: Examining the iconography and inscriptions on Sassanid coinage, particularly the titles used by rulers such as Ardeshir Babakan (e.g., the emphasis on being a “Mazda-worshiper”) to establish divine legitimacy.
Epigraphic and Textual Analysis: Reviewing historical accounts regarding the policies of the early Sassanid monarchs and the socio-political influence of the Zoroastrian clergy (Mughans).
Conceptual Framework: Applying the theoretical lens of the “Ideal King” and the interplay between the concepts of ‘Arta’ (Truth/Cosmic Order) and ‘Xshathra’ (Dominion/Power) to understand the divine mandate of the Sassanid throne.
Discussion & Results
The findings of this research reveal a sophisticated, albeit rigid, integration of religion and statehood that redefined the Iranian political landscape.
The Institutionalization of Theocracy:
One of the most significant results of the Sassanid political strategy was the formalization of the clergy’s role within the state apparatus. Under the leadership of Ardeshir Babakan, the Zoroastrian priesthood (Mughans) was elevated from a religious class to a powerful political institution. This was not merely a symbolic gesture; it was a structural integration. The clergy, exemplified by figures such as the high priest Kartir, gained unprecedented influence over state affairs, ranging from judicial decisions to economic administration. This resulted in a “state within a state,” where the religious establishment possessed the authority to guide, and at times, constrain the monarch’s executive power.
The Doctrine of Sacred Kingship:
The research identifies the “Sacred King” as the central axis of Sassanid governance. Unlike secular models where the king is a protector of the law, the Sassanid king was seen as the earthly manifestation of divine will. The king was both the political administrator and the supreme guardian of the sacred fire and religious truth. This creates a binary political reality: the social and political order was perceived as a reflection of the cosmic order. Consequently, any political rebellion or deviation from state policy was not merely viewed as treason but as a demonic (Druj) act against the divine order (Asha/Arta).
Ideological Rigidity and its Socio-Political Consequences:
While the infusion of religious ideology provided the Sassanid state with immense internal cohesion and a strong sense of civilizational identity, it also introduced significant structural vulnerabilities. The research highlights several critical consequences:
Suppression of Diversity: The drive for religious uniformity led to the violent suppression of heterodox beliefs and followers of other faiths (such as Manichaeism and other minority sects). This reduced the state’s capacity to integrate diverse social groups.
Administrative Inflexibility: The heavy involvement of the clergy in civil administration created a bureaucratic rigidity. The focus on maintaining ritualistic purity and clerical authority often superseded the need for pragmatic and adaptive governance.
Resource Depletion: Significant state resources were directed toward the establishment and maintenance of clerical authority and religious monuments, which, in the long term, strained the empire’s economic stability during periods of external pressure.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the Sassanid era represents a landmark period in the history of political thought, where the state was reconstructed as a religious entity built upon the foundation of the “Idealistic King.” This model succeeded in creating a powerful, centralized identity that could withstand external cultural hegemonies and define the essence of Iranian statehood for centuries.
However, the study concludes that the very mechanism used to ensure stability—the fusion of political power with religious dogma—ultimately became a source of systemic fragility. The inability to separate essential civil governance from rigid theological enforcement, coupled with the overwhelming influence of the religious elite, created internal fissures. Therefore, while the Sassanid religious state was a masterclass in identity preservation, it also serves as a historical cautionary tale regarding the dangers of ideological absolutism and the loss of administrative flexibility in the face of evolving geopolitical realities.
