State Studies

Government Limitations and Conflicts in Theories of Equality According to Thomas Nigel

Document Type : Research Paper

Authors

Parviz Amini
Javad Heydari

Assistant Professor, Department of Political Science, School of Governance, Shahed University, Tehran, Iran.

https://doi.org/10.22054/tssq.2024.74692.1435
Abstract
Introduction
In this article, our aimis to explain that in the individual area morality is the transition from egoism to altruism. In the political area, morality involves a transition from partiality to equality. Equality is at the core of all moral theories. Nagel distinguishes three important concepts of equality: utility, right, and fairness. We will argue that these three types of concepts fall into two very general types of theories: action-oriented theory and consequence-oriented theory. The main debate regarding the relationship between ethics and politics is that we have not yet been able to create a kind of compatibility between these two types of theories, and they conflict fundamentally with each other.
Research Aim
Our objective is to analyze the interplay between ethics and politics through the lens of Thomas Nagel’s perspective, aiming to provide a novel comprehension of this relationship. Hence, it is imperative to elucidate our understanding of “ethics” before embarking on the ensuing discourse. We hold the fundamental belief that ethical conduct within the realm of personal interactions necessitates a transition from egoism and self-interest to an orientation that prioritizes altruism. As we progressively shift from egoism to altruism, our ethical stature becomes enhanced. Undoubtedly, as human beings, we all pursue our individual interests, irrespective of the specific nature of those interests. Our innate inclination is to prioritize the interests of ourselves, our families, friends, fellow citizens, and compatriots. However, Nagel posits that humans possess the capacity to simultaneously consider both self-centered and other-centered perspectives, taking into account the interests of others in our deliberations.
Methodology
In this study, employing a documentary research method and examining Nagel’s writings in this field, we distinguish between three key conceptions of equality: the utility-based conception, the rights-based conception, and the fairness-based conception.
Findings
Nagel contends that moral conduct within the political domain entails a movement away from favoritism and towards equality. Just as the conflict between egoism and altruism stands as the most prominent moral conflict in personal interactions, Nagel argues that the conflict between partiality and equality occupies a central position in the political arena. “Equality” represents a paramount ideal in both morality and morally-informed politics. Political systems are regarded as morally sound to the extent that they progressively transcend partiality and embrace equality. Consequently, Nagel considers equality as the benchmark for evaluating the ethical nature of political systems. He posits that authoritarian and oppressive systems are rooted in a form of “partiality,” while ethical systems are grounded in a form of “equality.” Consequently, the reformist movement signifies a progression towards the ideal of equality. However, both “partiality” and “equality” are multifaceted concepts that demand further elucidation.
Nagel discerns three fundamental notions of equality that delineate distinct forms of reformism. When “equality” serves as our guiding principle for imbuing politics with ethical considerations, it assumes paramount importance as the yardstick for assessing and determining conduct within both individual and institutional realms. These three conceptions of equality can be categorized as follows:
Rights: Grounded in the principle of non-interference, this conception emphasizes the preservation and respect for individual rights.
Utility: Centered around the pursuit of maximizing overall well-being for the greatest number of individuals, this notion underscores the importance of promoting collective welfare.
Fairness: Anchored in a hierarchical framework of needs, this conception entails prioritizing and addressing societal disparities to achieve a more equitable distribution of resources and opportunities.
Our discussion revolved around the concept of ethical living, which entails a transition from egoism to altruism in the realm of individual existence and from partiality to equality in the domain of collective life. Hobbes, a philosopher, dismissed the notion of humans possessing the capacity and potential for other-selection, attributing self-interest as the foremost motivation and primary impetus in individuals. Consequently, Hobbes’ primary endeavor was to derive collective self-interest from individual self-interest, such as security…
Subsequently, we illustrate that within the annals of political thought, three significant and classical interpretations of equality or altruism have emerged. The rights-based interpretation, as advocated by Locke and Nozick, which emanates freedom. The utility-based interpretation, espoused by Hume and Mill, which emanates welfare. And the fairness-based interpretation, put forth by Rawls, which emanates justice. Thus, these three interpretations give rise to three paramount ideals in the realm of politics: freedom, welfare, and justice…
Conclusion
Now, the most pivotal issue within political theories is how to reconcile these four grand human ideals in the political realm, encompassing security, freedom, welfare, and justice. Moreover, in instances of conflict, which ideal supersedes the others and why?

Keywords

Nagel
Equality
Utility
Right
Fairness.
Subjects
Nagel, Thomas. (2018). Mortal Questions. Translated by Javad Heidari and Mostafa Malekian. Tehran: Negah-e Moaser. [In Persian]
Nagel, Thomas. (2016). The Possibility of Altruism. Translated by Javad Heidari. Tehran: Negah-e Moaser. [In Persian]
Nagel, Thomas. (2020). Equality and Partiality. Translated by Javad Heidari. Tehran: Nashr-e Now. [In Persian]
Nagel, Thomas. (2014). What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy (translated as Ethics). Translated by Javad Heidari. Tehran: Negah-e Moaser. [In Persian]
Saroukhani, Baqer. (2004). Research Methods in Social Sciences (Vol. 1). Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies. [In Persian]
Mousavi, Seyed Reza. (2019). “A Critique and Review of the Book ‘Equality and Partiality’”. Critical Studies in Texts and Programs of Human Sciences, Vol. 19, No. 7, Serial No. 71, pp. 289–305. [In Persian]
Majdfar, Fatemeh. (2003). General Sociology. Tehran: Shoa. [In Persian]
Parvin, Phil, and Chambers, Claire. (2022). Political Philosophy: A Complete Introduction. Translated by Javad Heidari. Tehran: Soroush-e Moulana Publications. [In Persian]
Scanlon, Thomas. (2022). Why Does Inequality Matter? Translated by Narges Salahshouri. Tehran: Soroush-e Moulana Publications. [In Persian]

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